THE BLACK FLAG OF THE ¿ABBASIDS

RESUMEN Flags and banners have played an important ceremonial role in Islam. The author studies the simbolic and historical meaning from its colours and typology. Las banderas y estandartes jugaron un importante papel simbólico en el Islam. El autor estudia el significado simbólico e histórico de sus colores y tipología.

black one, raya. 4The historian Muhȃmmad Ibn Ish˘q (85-150/704-67) reported that when the Prophet set out for the battle of Badr he gave one of his companions a white flag and was preceded by his son-in-law and cousin ¿Al^ ibn Ab^ T˝lib and one of the ans˘r, who each carried a black flag.The flag carried by ¿Al^ was called al-¿Uq˝b, the eagle, but the name of the other black flag has not been preserved. 5he traditionalist Sulaym˝n b. al-Ash¿ath Ab¨ D˝÷¨d of Basra (202-75/817-889) recorded three hȃd^th mentioning the flags of the Prophet, in one he reported that: Gladius XX, 2000   The historian Ab¨ Abdall˝h Muhȃmmad Ibn Sa¿d (ca 168-230/784-845) also says: It has reached me and All˝h knoweth best, that the name of the sword of the Apostle of All˝h, may All˝h bless him, was dhu÷l-faq˝r and that of his banner was al-¿Uq˝b. 13

COLORS
Colors were important in the early Islamic period, they were thought to symbolise spiritual and moral qualities, were used to designate specific groups and families, furthermore, they were a key element in ceremonial events, mar˝sim.At the time of the Prophet white was regarded as the color of both the Quraysh and the Yaman^ clans and red that of the Qaysites.White was especially associated with the Prophet, Louis Massignon quotes a ninth century poet who wrote that the s˘f^'s wore white because this was: the accepted habit in which the faithful witness (Muhȃmmad) bowed down before his Creator. 14 White was also associated with angelic purity.One tradition regarding the angels who are reported to have helped the Muslims at the battle of Badr says they were clothed in white or wore white turbans. 15Another tradition attributed to ¿Al^, maintains that all the angels wore white except Gabriel, who wore a yellow turban. 16White was adopted by the Umayyads as the color of their caliphate.The Fatimids preferred white but retained the use of red as a royal prerogative; visitors were warned not to wear it because: it is the colour of the caliph's dress as well as those who rebel against him. 17 Red was also associated with the Prophet, who had a red tent and who, on occasion, wore a red cloak. 18The texts, sahifa, which the Prophet kept with his sword were often said to have been kept in either a red leather bag, red case or red leather scabbard. 19Douglas Crow saw a connection between this case and the pre-Islamic "portable shrine" (al-Jafr), which he thought might be analogous to the red leather tent "originally a place of refuge" under the guardianship of the tribal chief, and in battle carried on the back of a camel. 20Red also connoted war and death.Ibn Ish˘q writing about Ab¨ Duj˝na at the battle of Uhȗd reports that he always wore a red turban when about to fight and is said to have wrapped a sword given him by the Prophet in a red cloth that was thereupon called the "dressing of death." 21Later the red cap or turban came to symbolize a mortification undergone in the service of God and Ab¨ Duj˝na's distinctive headdress may have been the prototype for the dervish groups known for their red headgear and called therefore Qizil-b˝sh^, or redheads, who adopted the color as their emblem and even carried red banners into battle. 22n the Qur÷˝n green is associated with life itself and as one of the signs of God. Green evoked the idea of tranquillity and refuge as is echoed in hȃd^th reported by Ibn Ish˘q: Green was also the color of the mysterious al-Khadȋr, the green one, and was regarded as the color of the Prophet and of the family of ¿Al^; consequently the Sh^¿˝, distinguished themselves from the ¿Abbasids by adopting green and sometimes white as their colors.
T Possession of the Prophet's flag was important to the early caliphs, because it was part of the m^r˝th ras¨l All˝h, the "Legacy of the Prophet" 26 and was therefore relevant in the continuing dispute over who had the right to leadership in the Muslim community.The years following the death of the prophet Muhȃmmad in 11/632 saw the rapid spread of Islam but were also marked by a bitter struggle over the leadership of the Muslim community.The most vigourous argument was between ¿Al^, the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law, and some of the Prophet's closest and earliest followers.Finally, a large number of the companions elected Ab¨ Bakr as caliph.When the latter died in 13/634 the caliphate passed to Umar, another of the Prophet's early followers, and upon his death to ¿Uthm˝n, an Umayyad.The Umayyads were a powerful Meccan clan descended, as were the Prophet and ¿Al^, from ¿Abd Man˝f. 27 ¿Uthm˝n was subsequently murdered and in 35/656 ¿Al^ became the fourth of the so called "orthodox" or "rightly guided" caliphs.Political tension, however, remained intense and ¿Alf aced a rebellion led by Mu¿˝wiya a relative of ¿Uthm˝n.In 40/660 ¿Al^ was murdered and Mu¿˝wiya was installed as the first Umayyad caliph.Paradoxically, in establishing Islam the Prophet had fought against the Jews and the pagan Arabs, but perhaps his most formidable ghj ---- 22 The Ottomans also used red banners, many examples of which have survived.The widespread use of red banners is further demonstrated by the many examples depicted in Timurid, Turkoman, Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal miniature p a i nt in g s e e We lc h 198 5, pl s. 2 8 , 33 ; A ku r g a l 19 8 0, p l. 17 3; We lc h 197 6, fo li o 102 v, p. 1 36 ; Be a c h 19 81 , c a t .n o. 1 2 d. 23 Ibn Ish˘q 1982, p. 401. 24Massignon 1982, p. 104. 25 Lewis 1960, pp. 15-16.Black banners were also adopted by the Salj¨qs and it has been suggested this in acknowledgment that they had been awarded the sultanate by the ¿Abbasid caliph, this theory remains uncertain, as they used black banners as early as 430/1039, see Bosworth 1973, p. 304. 26 For a discussion of this see Alexander 1999.There is no complete agreement on the inventory involved, but most reports include his ring, cloak, staff and sword; while others include his flag and bow and even an assortment of ancient relics such as the staff and basin of Moses, the Ark of the Covenant and the shirt of Adam. 27 The line of descent was through ¿Abd Shams whilst that of the Prophet and ¿Al^ was through H˝shim During the Umayyad period the dispute over who had the right to lead the community became essentially a quarrel between various interrelated branches of the Qurayish, all descendants of ¿Abd Man˝f.Dissent, conflict and rebellion multiplied and eventually an alliance formed between the Sh^¿˝ and the ¿Abbasids, a family descended from al-¿Abb˝s b. ¿Abd al-Muttȃlib al-H˝shim, the Prophet's uncle.Their propaganda, like that of their foes, the Umayyads, included a strong messianic component, bound up with widespread predictions and hopes for the coming of the madh^.
Large sections of the Qur÷˝n deal with the Last Days, yawm al-qiy˝ma, and belief in them and the Ressurection is a basic tenet of Islam.Certainly, it is stressed that the time when the Hour will arrive is unknowable, but there is every reason to believe that the Prophet and his early followers regarded it as imminent.
Buk h˝ r ^ f o r e xa mp le , l is t s a la r ge n u mb e r o f h ȃd it h a t tr ib u te d t o th e Pr o ph e t on t h e si g ns t ha t wi l l pr e sa ge t h e La s t Da ys .T he s e in c l u de t h e a p pe a r a nc e o f th e m ad h^ a n d th e s e c o nd c omin g of Je su s , ¿È sa . 29Fo ll ow e d by a p oc a l y pt ic po r t e n t s, e a r t hq ua k e s , c r a c k in g o f t he s ky , mou nt a i n s up r oo te d, th e n th e tr u mp e t s o f th e a ng e ls , th e g a t h e r in g h ȃs hr , a nd L a st J u dg e me n t.
It was predicted that one of the first occurences in this series of events would be the arrival of the madh^, the rightly guided one, 30 who would restore the purity of religion and inau-----gurate a new age of peace and justice.According to Madelung, the first use of the word madh^ referring to a messianic ruler was early in the Umayyad period during the time of ¿Abd All˝h b. al-Zubayr and the caliph ¿Abd al-Malik (r.65-86/685-705); he notes that several of the Umayyad caliphs were regarded as being the madh^.There is evidence which suggests that ¿Abd al-Malik also saw himself in this way.On his coinage he is depicted holding a sword with scabbard; 31 most likely dhu÷l-faq˝r; a symbol of military power, political and spiritual legitimacy and of the Last Days. 32A more important manifestation of this messianic fervor was ¿Abd al-Malik's building program on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.This included many elements one would expect to find in the Third Temple all relating to the theme of the Last Days. 33 His chief advisor in this was Ka¿b al-Ahb˝r who is reported to have said: I have found in one of the Books of God that were sent down, that God, may He be exalted said: Rejoice oh Jerusalem (abshir^ ur^shalam), which means I shall send to thee my servant ¿Abd al-Malik who shall restore to you your first kingdom, and I shall adorn thee with gold, silver, pearls, and precious stones, that is the Sȃkhra, and I shall put my throne on thee as it was before.For I am All˝h there is no God but myself alone, no partners have I. 34 By the late Umayyad period hȃdith about the madh^ included a reference to black flags.A famous hȃdith, known as the "hȃdith of the flags," circulated at this time and was attributed to the Prophet: While we were with the Messenger of God, there came some youths of the Ban¨ H˝shim.When he saw them his eyes flowed with tears and his colour changed.We said 'O Messenger of God, we have for some time seen in your face something we dislike'.He said, 'God has chosen for us, the People of my House, the hereafter over this world.The People of My House shall meet misfortune, banishment, and persecution until people come from the East with black flags.They will ask for charity but will not be given it.Then they will fight and be victorious.Now they will be given what they had asked for, yet they will not accept it but will finally hand it (sc.the earth) over to a man of my family.He will fill the earth with justice as they had filled it with injustice. 35e use of the black flag by the ¿Abbasids, therefore, goes to the core of the arguments not only about political legitimacy, but also to the nature of messianic expectations during the second/eighth century.The black flag was now regarded as the flag of the mahd^ and ¿Abbasid propaganda maintained that their dynasty was destined to lead the Muslim community until the second coming ¿Èsa and the advent of the Last Days By God, after that (namely after the twelve caliphs predicted in a hadith of the Prophet) there will come from us the Saff˝h, the Mans˘r, and the madh^ who will hand it (sc.the caliphate) over to ¿Ès˝ b.Maryam. 36 ----31 American Numismatic Society, New York, no.1970.63.1, dated 75/694-95, illustrated in Blair 1992, p. 65, fig.6; for the mahd^ and the dhu÷l-faq˝r see Alexander 1999. 32A s c u lp tu r e , f r om Khi r ba t a l-Ma f j a r de p ic ts th e ca l ip h, po ss ib l y Hi sh ˝ m (r .105 -1 2 5/ 72 4 -4 3) c a r r yi n g wh a t is pr ob a b ly th e d hu ÷l -f a q˝ r, a ls o His h˝ m wa s c a ll e d th e m ah d^ by the co ur t poe t Ja r ^ r b. ¿At ȋ yy a ( d. 110 / 72 8-9 ) .For Kh ir b a t a l-Ma f ja r , se e Ba e r 19 8 6, p p . 10 -1 7 a nd Ha mi lt o n 19 6 9, p p. 61 -6 7 ; fo r His h˝ m a s m ah d^ , se e Ma d e l un g 1 98 6, pp .123 1-32 . 33Elad 1992 and Aylon 1989 where the decoration of the dome is interpretated as referring to the Last Days.In addition many of the rituals practiced in the Dome of the Rock were based upon Jewish Temple ceremonial.A Christian writer of the late 7th century remarked that "they have erected a temple which they claim is the Temple of God." in  Flusin 1992, p. 29. and Elad p. 38, notes a tradition ascribed to Ka¿b al-Ahb˝r in which the Dome of the Rock is called "the Temple (al-Haykal) built by ¿Abd al-Malik."Another tradition maintains that the Temple Mount will be the place of gathering during the Last Days, Elad 1992, p. 45. 34 Elad p. 38, in a parallel text the last line reads "For I am Allah, the sovereign, and David is the King of the Children of Israel." 35 Madelung 1986, p. 1233, although Madelung argues that in fact it was fabricated by the Sh^¿˝ propagandist Yaz^d b.Ab^ Ziy˝d (d.136/753-4). 36The prediction was ascribed to ¿Abd All˝h b. al-¿Abb˝s, quoted in Madelung 1986, p. 1233.
In 132/750 an ¿Abbasid partisan, Ab¨ Muslim, raised a black flag in Merv signaling a new rebellion against Umayyad authority.Although it has been suggested that the armies led by Ab¨'l-¿Abb˝s and Ab¨ Muslim marched under the Prophet's black banner al-¿Uq˝b, 37 it is uncertain whether the rebels really possessed it.However, their use of the black flag made a symbolic claim to their being his true heirs; waging war as his flag bearers.The use of this symbol was especially poignant in that it evoked memories of battles such as Badr and Uhȗd when the Prophet had also fought the Umayyads.It was also in complete contrast to the Umayyad color which was white.The historian Ab¨ Ja¿far Muhȃmmad b.Jar^r al-Tȃbar(  208-311/823-923), for example, describing the siege of Constantinople in 99/714 by Maslama, the son of the caliph ¿Abd al-Malik wrote that: Maslama proclaimed the takbir and entered alone into the city of Constantinople.He wore a silk tunic, a cuirass, and over the cuirass a cloak.Around his helmet was wound a band of white cloth.His sabre was suspended over his shoulder and he carried a lance at the tip of which was a white flag. 38thin a few months of the unfurling of the black banner a new dynasty ruled the Islamic world.The Sh^¿˝ seem to have expected that power would be transferred to the family of ¿Al^, but the ¿Abbasids assumed the caliphate and the dispute over political legitimacy continued.Each family based its claim to power on genealogical grounds and the old symbols resurfaced continually, but now the color of rebellion was white; for example, Tabar^ reports that in 151/769 the Sh^¿˝ staged a revolt led by ¿Abdull˝h b.Muhȃmmad and his brother Ibr˝h^m.One of their followers, ¿Umar b. This was one failed revolt amongst many and the ¿Abbasid dynasty remained in power until its destruction by the Mongols in 656/1258.
Bl a c k, not o nly f o r f la gs bu t a lso f or c lo th ing , w a s th e c ol or of th e ¿Abb a s id dyn a s ty.Th e y a n d the ir f o llo we r s wor e b la c k c lo th e s a nd r a is e d bl a c k f l a g s f or c e r e moni a l a n d f or ba ttl e .Th e us e of thi s c ol or wa s r e se r v e d f or t he c a l ip h, his f a mi ly a n d c our t a nd it s mis use w a s r e g a r de d a s a se r io us of f e n se a s wh e n in th e y e a r 2 20/ 83 5 a ma ke r o f u mb r e l la s , te n ts a n d c a me l e qu ipme n t a r r i ve d a t t he pa l a c e o f t he c a lip h a l-Mu¿ta sȋm we a r ing a bl a c k du rr ˝¿a , a swo r d a n d a sw or d be lt .T he vi z ie r a l-Fa d l b .Ma r w˝ n w a s out r a ge d a n d e xc la ime d: In truth, you are only a merchant and black and the sword are not for such as you. 40e presumptuous merchant was beaten and then released.Religious leaders of the ¿Abbasid period also wore black; for example, the Andalusian traveler Ibn Jubayr (540-614/1145-1217) described the use of black clothing and banners during the Friday prayers in Mecca.He recorded how the khat˘b, preacher, approached the mimbar, pulpit: He wears a black dress, worked with gold, a black turban similarly worked . . . he slowly paces between two black banners held by two muezzins of his tribe.Before him goes another of his people bearing a red staff . . . he goes to the pulpit led by the Zamzan muezzin . . .also dressed in black clothes . . . .

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37 Masud^ 1914, vol.6, p. 77; others have argued that black was adopted as the dynastic color of the ¿Abbasids to signify mourning for the members of the family of H˝shim who had been killed by the Umayyads e.g.Lewis 1960, pp. 15-16. 38 Tȃbar^ 1980-84, vol. 3, p. 210, the account Tȃbar^ gives of the siege undoubtedly contains many legendary elements, but there seems no reason to doubt his attribution of a white flag to the Umayyad prince. 39Tȃbar^ 1988, vol. 1, p. 211. 40Marin 1951, p. 19.

Gladius XX, 2000
The muezzin girds the khatib with the sword . . . .During the khutbah, the two black banners are planted at the first step of the mimbar. 41itten sources of the ¿Abbasid period indicate that some banners were very large and some small; Tȃbar^, for example, records that the ¿Abbasid general al-Afsh^n: used to carry twelve huge black banners . . .and about five hundred small banners. 42een replaced black for a brief time during the caliphate of al-Ma÷m¨n (r.198-218/813-33) 43 but Zainab bint Sulaiman b. ¿Al^ a dowager of the ¿Abbasid house complained: O Commander of the Faithful, you have behaved more dutifully towards your relatives, the descendants of Ali, than they have towards you; there is no need for you to abandon an old custom of your ancestor.Give up green clothes and do not encourage anyone's ambitious plans. 44e caliph relented and reverted to black.Tradition maintains that the Prophet's banner was preserved after his death, by the Umayyad and ¿Abbasid caliphs.This and the other objects comprising the m^r˝th ras¨l All˝h, was probably lost either during the Fatimid period 45 or in 656/1258 when the Mongols sacked Baghdad and destroyed the ¿Abbasid dynasty.Later, the Mamluks established a restored ¿Abbasid dynasty and claimed to be in possession of the m^r˝th, but there is no real evidence to support the truth of this claim.Black was however, the color of this restored dynasty and the historian Ibn Iyas records by the caliph in the investiture of a Mamluk Sult˘n: The royal insignia were brought to the Sult˘n, that is to say, the black cloak, the black turban, and the Bedaw^ sword. 46 922/1517 the Mamluks were in turn conquered by the Ottomans under Sel^m I (r.918-26/1512-20) and objects said to be the m^r˝th were transferred to Istanbul along with the caliph al- Mutawakkil. 47 This group of "relics" is said to have contained a bow and a banner of the Prophet.The banner, sançak-i- ¶erif, was taken by the Ottoman sultans on major military campaigns (as well as on the pilgrimage to Mekka). 48When it became too worn for further use it was apparently taken apart and pieces of it were incorporated in new flags to make three new "sacred" banners. 49-- 41 Broadhurst 1952, pp. 91-93. 42 Tȃ ba r ^ 19 51 , p. 33 , f ol lo w in g in th e tr a di ti o n es t a b li sh e d by th e Pr o ph e t a ba nn e r wa s of t e n gi ve n to an in di v id ua l w he n he wa s pr o mo te d to a n impo r ta nt po si ti o n, su c h a s gov e r n or o f a d is t r i c t .The r e ar e nu me r ou s i ns ta n c e s of th is re c o rd e d f r o m the ¿A bb a s i d pe r io d; du r i ng th e ca l ip ha t e of a l -T ˝ ÷ i ¿ (r .363 -8 1 /9 74 -9 1 ) , f o r ex a mp le , it is r e c o r d e d th a t wh e n al -D a w la A b ¨ Ma n s˘ r wa s a pp o in te d gov e r n or o f Jur ja n a nd T a ba ri s ta n he wa s se n t "t h e de e d of a p po in t me nt , the b a nn e r a n d t he imp e r i a l ro be s" , Ma r g ol io ut h 192 1 , vo l.I, p .79.I n de e d th e po s se ss i on of suc h a b a n ne r se e ms to ha ve b e c o me sy no ny mo us w i th t h e go ve r no r s h ip o ve r a l a r g e ar e a of la nd , a nd muc h l a t e r du r in g th e O tt o ma n pe r io d the T ur k ish wor d s an ç a k , d e s ig na t e d b o th a l a r g e ba n ne r a nd a l so a t e r r it o r i a l u n it . 43When al-Ma÷m¨n temporarily adopted green, he probably did so as a means of rapproachment with the Sh^¿w hose colors were white or green. 44Masud^ 1989, p. 408. 45Canard 1951, says the F˝tȋmids used the "relics" in their courtly ceremonial and Canard 1960, p. 1074, notes that the objects sent to Cairo were the turban, mind^l, cloak, rid˝÷, and a latticed screen, sh ubb˝k; see also Hitti 1977, p. 622. 46 Ibn Iyas 1921, p. 72. 47 Ënalcik 1970, p.320.The Ottomans claimed that this also transferred the caliphate to them. 48Zỹgulski 1992, pp.18-24. 49See also introduction, Swords and Sabers, under the discussion of dhu'l-faq˝r.For a detailed account of the banner's history, see Zỹgulski 1992, pp.17-24.

THE IMPERIAL TRADITION, NON-ARAB INFLUENCES ON ¿ABBASID FLAGS
The most complete visual record of ¿Abbasid flags is in a miniature painting by Yahy˝ b.Mahm¨d b.Yahy˝ al-W˝sit˘, painted in Baghdad in 634/1237 (Fig. 1). 50This miniature, executed only a few years before the destruction of Bagdad by the Mongols depicts a group of horsemen three playing musical instruments and the others carrying a variety of flags; some are triangular, one is like a figure eight seemingly made from a long strip of fabric rather like a long scarf, one is long and rectangular with a number of lozenge shaped fabric attachments along its side, and the other five are squarish.These five are of various colors, and are covered with Qur÷˝nic verses; one is black and possibly represents the Prophet's flag al-¿Uq˝b.
As a vi sua l doc ume nt al -W˝ si t˘ ' s pa i nti ng mu st be in te r pr e te d with c a ut ion .Its co lo r in g is de li c a t e a nd it s lin e str o ng , but it is ca r t oon -li ke in it s con c e p ti on and a lth oug h it ma y r e f l e c t a n a c tu a l eve nt it s c ompon e nt s ca n on ly ha ve be e n for me d by c op yin g f r o m a n e xi sti ng pa tte r n.
Ev id e nc e f or th is ca n be se e n in the tr e a t me nt of th e dr a p e r y in the ho r se me ns cos tu me s an d in th e wa y th e rib bon -l ike fl a g s a r e de pic te d with ha r d po int e d en ds.Fa br ic st yli se d in this wa y wa s a ha ll ma r k of ea r ly Ar a b an d Syr ia n Ja c o bit e pa i nti ng 51 Thi s te nd a n c y to ex tr e me st yli z a t io n ha s ca u se d some co nf usi on ab out th e fla g typ e s re p r e se n te d in a l-W ˝ s it˘ ' s pa int ing .The fi gu r e e i gh t, sc a r f -li ke fl a g is al mos t c e r tin ly no t a di st inc t f la g type but ra t he r a fu r l e d ba n ne r . 52Ba nne r s fu r le d in thi s wa y ar e fr e que nt ly de p ic te d in Chin e se pa in tin g (Fi g. 2) an d its pr e se nc e in th is Ar a b mi nia tur e mus t b e the r e su lt of a mis und e r sto od bo r r o win g. 53 The other flag types represented in the painting were probably used by the ¿Abbasids.The five squarish flags represent an Arab tradition that can be traced to the Prophet's flag al-¿Uq˝b.The others had their antecedents in Greece, pre-Islamic Iran, Central Asia and China.This is true also of the symbolism of the painting which is sometimes described as representing the guard of the caliph, 54 and the scene fits the historian Ab¨ Zayd ¿Abd al-Rahm˝n Ibn Khald¨n's (ca.732-84/1332-82), description of imperial pomp: One of the emblems of royal authority is the display of banners and flags and the beating of drums and the blowing of trumpets and horns.
He goes on to say that music and flags are useful on the battlefield and that flags have been used by armies since the earliest of times.
This was also the case in the time of the Prophet and that of the caliphs who succeeded him.The Muslims however, refrained from beating drums and blowing trumpets at the beginning of Islam.They wanted to avoid the coarseness of royal authority and do without royal customs...The caliphate then came to be a royal authority, and the Muslims learned to esteem the splendour and luxury of this world.Persian and Byzantine clients, subjects of the preceding (pre-Islamic) dynasties mixed with them and showed them their ways of ostentation and luxury Among the things the Muslims came to like were those emblems.Therefore, they used them, and permitted their officials to use them to increase the prestige of royal authority and its representatives.¿Abb˝sid or ¿Umayyad caliphs would often grant permission to display their flags to officials such as the master of a border region or the commander of an army.such officials then, setting out on a mission or going from the house of the caliph or from their own houses to their offices, were accompanied by a cavalcade of people carrying flags and trumpets.The only distinction between the cavalcade of an official and that of the caliph was the number of flags, or the use of particular colors for the caliph's flag. 55ladius XX, 2000  Ibn Khald¨n certainly seems to have yearned for the simplicity and purity of the early Islamic period; and he was not alone in maintaining that the ¿Abb˝sids were strongly influenced by the ceremonial practices of the Sasanian empire.Al-W˝sit˘ provides a visual record for the influence on the Islamic world of the imperial traditions of other peoples. 56he most direct and strongest influence upon the new Muslim empire was that of Sasanian Iran.In 15/636 during the caliphate of ¿Umar, a Muslim army led by Sa¿d b.AbŴ aqq˝s˘ defeated the Sasanians at the battle of Q˝disiyya and the Muslims captured the imperial Sasanian banner, said to be the apron of the legendary blacksmith Kavad.According to legend Kavad lived during the time of the monstrous snake-shouldered Dhahak, and one day Dhahak demanded the lives of his sons.At this Kavad rose in rebellion and lacking a proper flag hoisted his blacksmiths apron which subsequently became the battle standard of the Iranian kings who embellished it with precious stones.When the bejeweled standard was captured the victorious Muslims cut it up and divided it as booty. 57The shape of this stan-----56 Masud^ also relates numerous stories supporting the view that the ¿Abbasids borrowed heavily from the Persians, e.g. he reports that the caliph Mu¿tasim "imitated the Persian kings in his table service and in the fashion for wearing a turban over a soft cap."Masud^ 1989, p. 392.There is little evidence for the influence of Byzantine flag types upon the ¿Abb˝sids, perhaps, because Byzantium remained an unconquered foe during this period. 57Duchesne-Guillemin 1966, p. 126; according to Masud^ this banner was extremely large, about 7 x 3 meters, was made of panther skin and covered with rubies, pearls and other gemstones.It is said to have been sold for 30,000 dinars, Masud^, quoted in Pope 1938-39, vol.VI, pp.2769-2770.Gladius XX, 2000   dard is unknown but other Sasanian flag types are well documented on rock carvings and in the minor arts of the Sasanian period.

RIBBON-LIKE FLAGS
Sasanian influence is clearly evident in al-W˝sit˘'s painting.Specificially, in the triangular ribbon-like flags which echo the ribbon-like streamers used by the Sasanians as a mark of royalty.Sasanian rulers rode into battle with long ribbons attached to their helmets, ribbons adorned their crowns and belts and the sacred rings that were used in their investitures (Fig. 2).The Arabs seem to have adopted this Sasanian convention at a very early date as is indicated by a fresco depicting a hunting scene at Qasȓ al-Hayr al-Gharb˘ of ca.109/727 (Fig. 3).Al-W˝sit˘ flags, like those in the fresco, are forked at their ends, and like most of the Sasanian ribbons are tapered from the end nearest the pole.sian banners of about the same period. 59Secondly, flags with long streamers attached to the body of the flag of which the earliest depiction is on a Han dynasty carving of about the A.D., 2nd century. 60Several banners with very long streamers dating to the 8th century were found at Dunhuang in north-western China and are now preserved in the British Museum. 61 It has been suggested that this type developed from the streamer-like dragon banners used by the Sarmatians and other Central Asian nomadic tribes.Flags with "streamer-like" tails are paralleled in Central Asian wall paintings and metalwork of the immediate pre-Islamic period (Fig. 4). 62Thirdly, there is an intermediate type represented by flags in a wall painting of about 865 from Dunhuang; these have a long streamer at the top and progressively smaller attachments along the side and bottom.
he u se of b l a c k, h o we ve r , is c u r i ou s ; c e r t a in ly th e Pr o ph e t ha d a b la c k f l a g , a l-¿U q˝ b , b ut i n ge ne r a l t h e c o lo r w a s r e ga r d e d a s in a u sp i c i ou s .I t w a s th e c ol or of s o r r ow a n d mi s f o r t un e . 24T hi s se e ms t o h a v e b e e n o ne o f t he r e a s on s t ha t t he ¿Ab b a s id s a do pt e d it a s t he i r dy n a s ti c c ol or : I t si gn i f i e d mo ur ni n g f o r t he me mb e r s o f th e f a mil y o f H ˝ s hi m w ho h a d be e n ki ll e d by t h e U ma yy a d s a nd e s pe c i a ll y f or A bu ÷l -¿A bb ˝ s ' s br ot h e r I br ˝ h^ m b .Mu hȃ mma d ( 82 -1 32 / 70 1-7 49 ) wh o l a u n c h e d a n u pr i si ng a g a i ns t t he U ma y ya d s in 1 2 9/ 74 7 , wa s i mp r i s on e d a n d pr o bab ly mur d e r e d in 1 32 / 74 9. 25 Th e r e w a s , h ow e v e r , a mo r e c omp e l li n g r e a s o n f o r t he u s e of bl a c k b y th e ¿Ab ba s id s, s p e c if i c a ll y, it w a s a r e f e r e n c e to t h e Pr o ph e t ' s f l a g a n d it ' s us e w a s i n te nd e d t o ma ke a po i gn a n t s ta te me n t a b o ut p o li ti c a l l e g i ti ma c y a n d me s si a n i c e x c e p ta ti o ns .MESSIANIC HOPES IN THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD; THE BLACK FLAG AS AN ESCHATO-LOGICAL SYMBOL

Fig. 2 .
Fig. 2. Triangular ribbons attached to a circlet, Sasanian investiture scene T˘q-i B¨st˝n.

FLAGS
WITH "TAILS" The long flag with lozenge shaped attachments in the painting by al-W˝sit˘ has prototypes in both Europe and in China.Early representations of flags with attached cloth are of three types.Firstly, flags with has small attachments such as on a fresco from Paestum in southern Italy of the fourth century B.C., depicting a warrior carrying a flag with a row of tassels attached to its lower edge. 58According to Phyllis Ackerman tassels were used on Per-----58 Gamber 1978, fig.341, p. 330.The warriors wear Greek style armor and their flag may be a Greek type. 63

Fig. 4 .
Fig. 4. Banners with "tails" attached to the fly, from a Central Asian wall painting, A.D. 6th century State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.